Reflexivity and Sampling in Qualitative Research

What is Reflexivity and Why is it Important?

Reflexivity is a conscious process of critical self-analysis by the researcher, aimed at understanding how their own beliefs, experience, social position, and theoretical preferences influence the research process and outcomes. Unlike the quantitative approach, where the researcher strives for maximum objectivity and detachment, qualitative methodology acknowledges that complete neutrality is impossible—the researcher is always part of the research process.

Reflexivity is important for several reasons:

• Increasing trustworthiness—demonstrating awareness of one's own biases strengthens trust in the results
• Ethical responsibility—understanding power relations between the researcher and participants
• Depth of analysis—awareness of one’s own position enables deeper data interpretation
• Transparency—the reader can assess to what extent the researcher’s subjectivity influenced the conclusions

Types of Reflexivity

Personal Reflexivity

Personal reflexivity involves reflecting on how the researcher’s personal characteristics—their values, beliefs, life experience, gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status—shape the research process. The researcher asks themselves questions such as:

• How does my personal experience influence the choice of research topic?
• How might my assumptions affect my interpretation of the data?
• How do research participants perceive me, and how does this influence their answers?

Example: A researcher studying migrants’ experiences in the labor market who is a migrant themselves must recognize that their personal experience may both deepen their understanding of the issue and lead to projecting their own experiences onto participants.

Epistemological Reflexivity

Epistemological reflexivity focuses on analyzing how research decisions—the choice of methodology, theoretical framework, methods of data collection and analysis—shape the knowledge produced as a result of the study:

• How does the chosen methodology determine what can be "discovered"?
• How does the formulation of research questions limit possible answers?
• Could a different methodology have led to different conclusions?

Reflexive Journal

A reflexive journal is a systematic record of the researcher's thoughts, feelings, observations, and decisions throughout the research process. It is a key tool for ensuring reflexivity.

What to record in a reflexive journal:

Example entry: “March 15. Interview with the head of sales department. Noticed that the respondent became more open after learning about my work experience at a similar company. This could have influenced the nature of the answers—perhaps he assumed I share his perspective on the issue of staff turnover. I need to keep this in mind during analysis.”

Researcher Positionality

Positionality is the researcher's awareness of their place within the system of social, cultural, and power relations relative to participants and the research context. The concept of positionality includes two key dimensions:

• Insider—the researcher is part of the studied community or group. Advantages: deep understanding of context, trust from participants. Risks: “blind spots,” taking the obvious for granted.
• Outsider—the researcher does not belong to the studied group. Advantages: a fresh perspective, ability to notice the non-obvious. Risks: superficial understanding, participants’ mistrust.

In practice, positionality is often dynamic and multidimensional—the researcher may simultaneously be an insider in some respects and an outsider in others.

Sampling in Qualitative Research

Unlike quantitative research, which strives for representative random sampling, qualitative research uses purposive sampling. The goal is not statistical representativeness, but selection of participants who can provide the most informative and in-depth data to answer the research question.

Types of Purposive Sampling

1. Maximum Variation Sampling
Participants who differ as much as possible in key characteristics are selected. The goal is to identify common patterns that emerge despite differences.

• Example: Studying employees’ adaptation—selecting people of different ages, positions, tenure, departments.

2. Homogeneous Sampling
Participants with similar characteristics are selected. The goal is to examine the experience of a specific subgroup in detail.

• Example: Studying the experiences of women middle managers in IT companies.

3. Typical Case Sampling
Participants representing a “normal”, average case of the phenomenon are selected. The goal is to describe the typical experience.

• Example: Studying a typical workday of a project manager.

4. Extreme/Deviant Case Sampling
Unusual, extreme cases are selected. The goal is to understand the boundaries of the phenomenon and identify unique mechanisms.

• Example: Studying companies that achieved exceptional growth during a crisis.

5. Snowball Sampling
The first participants recommend other potential participants. Especially useful for accessing hard-to-reach or hidden populations.

• Example: Studying informal entrepreneurs—each participant found points to others.

6. Criterion Sampling
All cases that meet pre-defined criteria are selected. The goal is to ensure data quality and relevance.

• Example: All employees who have worked at a company for more than 10 years and have gone through reorganization.

Sample Size and Data Saturation

In qualitative research, sample size is determined not by statistical formulas, but by the principle of data saturation—the point at which new data no longer add substantially new information to what has already been collected.

Indicative sample sizes:

Indicators of saturation:

• New interviews confirm already identified themes and categories
• No new codes or themes emerge in analysis of additional data
• The researcher can predict participants’ responses

Practical Assignments

Assignment 1: Reflexivity Analysis

Imagine you are studying employee satisfaction in a large company, while you yourself work at this company. Write a fragment of a reflexive journal (5–7 sentences) reflecting your positionality and possible biases.

Solution:
“As an employee with five years’ tenure, I am an insider in this research. My own dissatisfaction with the performance appraisal system may influence how I formulate interview questions—I might unconsciously place emphasis on this topic. Colleagues know me and may either be more open (trust) or hide negative assessments (fear of information leakage). My position in the marketing department limits my understanding of the specifics of other departments’ work. It is necessary to consciously ask open-ended questions and avoid leading wording. It’s also important to ensure data confidentiality and communicate this to participants.”

Assignment 2: Choosing a Sampling Strategy

For each of the following research questions, identify the most appropriate sampling type and justify your choice:
a) How do entrepreneurs from different industries experience their first year?
b) What is the experience of burnout among intensive care nurses?
c) How do “unicorn” companies achieve a valuation of $1 billion?

Solution:
a) Maximum variation sampling—it is necessary to cover entrepreneurs from different industries, regions, and with different experiences to identify common patterns and differences.
b) Homogeneous sampling—focus on a specific group (intensive care nurses), which allows for an in-depth study of a specific experience.
c) Extreme/deviant case sampling—“unicorn” companies are an extremely rare and outstanding phenomenon, the study of which reveals unique mechanisms.

Assignment 3: Determining Saturation

A researcher conducted 12 interviews with entrepreneurs. After the 8th interview, no new themes appeared. The last 4 interviews confirmed previously identified patterns. Has saturation been reached? Justify your answer.

Solution:
Yes, it can be said that saturation has been reached. Indicators: 1) after the 8th interview, new themes and codes stopped appearing; 2) the subsequent 4 interviews confirmed existing categories; 3) the balance between “productive” (8) and “confirming” (4) interviews is adequate. However, it is recommended that the researcher document this process in a reflexive journal, explaining the criteria used to determine saturation and confirming that the sample included sufficient participant diversity.