Rhetoric

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BC) is not only the greatest Roman orator, but also the most comprehensive theoretician of rhetoric in the Western tradition. His three treatises—“On the Orator” (De Oratore), “Brutus,” and “The Orator”—constitute a systematic guide to the art of oratory, which has n...

For Cicero, an orator is not just a speaker, but simultaneously a statesman, philosopher, and artist. The ideal orator masters all sciences: he must know law, history, philosophy, and human psychology. The “perfect orator” is a person who can persuade anyone of anything under any circumstances.

Ancient rhetoric systematized the process of speech creation into five “canons” (officia oratoris):

1. Invention (inventio — discovery) — gathering arguments and material. At this stage, the orator asks questions: what needs to be proven? what facts, precedents, analogies are available? what emotions are appropriate? Special importance is attributed to topoi (topoi) — “places” from where argume...

Definitions

Tempo

— Slow tempo — authority, importance, gravity of words. Fast — energy, urgency, sometimes anxiety. Variation in tempo holds attention — monotone speed lulls. Pauses — one of the strongest tools: a pause before a key idea creates anticipation; a paus...

Pitch and intonation

— A questioning intonation at the end of a statement (uptalk) destroys authority — this is a common mistake. Lowering the tone at the end of a statement signals confidence.

Volume

— Quieter — means more important. When a leader wants the team to quiet down and listen, they often speak more softly, not louder. Raising the voice signals loss of control; sudden lowering — seriousness.

Articulation

— Unclear pronunciation → perceived as carelessness or insecurity. Exercise: read aloud with a pencil between your teeth to train muscle articulation.

Posture

— An open posture (shoulders squared, straight back, feet shoulder-width apart) communicates confidence and authority. A closed posture (slouching, crossed arms) — vulnerability or defensiveness. Amy Cuddy’s research on “power poses”: adopting open ...

Gestures

— Illustrative gestures (match the words) — amplify meaning. Adaptive gestures (touching the face, fiddling with a pen) — betray nervousness. Open palm gestures — create a sense of honesty. Gestures in the “box” plane (between waist and shoulders, n...

Gaze

— Eye contact creates connection and trust. In Western culture: 60–70% of the time — normal; less than 30% — perceived as evasiveness; more than 80% — pressure. In public speaking: look at specific people (3–5 seconds), don’t sweep across the audien...

Albert Mehrabian published a communication study in 1967: 7% of information is transmitted by words, 38% — by voice (tone, tempo, intonation), 55% — by body (posture, facial expressions, gaze). This figure entered business literature as the “55–38–7 rule.”

A crucial caveat: Mehrabian’s study concerned only situations of conveying feelings and relationships, and only when there was a mismatch between verbal and nonverbal. It cannot be generalized to all types of communication. But the principle remains: nonverbal signals carry enormous weight, espec...

Tempo: Slow tempo — authority, importance, gravity of words. Fast — energy, urgency, sometimes anxiety. Variation in tempo holds attention — monotone speed lulls. Pauses — one of the strongest tools: a pause before a key idea creates anticipation; a pause after — lets it settle.

Pitch and intonation: A questioning intonation at the end of a statement (uptalk) destroys authority — this is a common mistake. Lowering the tone at the end of a statement signals confidence.

Studies of cognitive load (Sweller) show: the human brain processes information in working memory of limited capacity. Structured information reduces cognitive load — the audience understands and remembers better. An unstructured stream of thoughts overloads working memory and leaves only a sense...

Structure is not a prison for thinking, but a roadmap for the audience. When the listener understands where you are leading — they follow without getting lost.

The simplest structure for a short argument or answer to a question. Point: thesis (“This project should be postponed”). Reason: main reason (“Market conditions have fundamentally changed”). Example: specific fact/example (“Three competitors announced similar products priced 30% lower than ours”)...

PREP works for answers at meetings, short pitches, decision explanations. Four steps — and the argument sounds complete.

Definitions

Executive summary

— a one- or two-page overview of a major document for executives. Structure: problem → key findings → recommendations → next steps. The executive should be able to make a decision without reading the full document.

Memorandum (memo)

— an internal document formalizing a decision, request, or information. Required elements: To, From, Date, Subject (concise and specific), Thesis in the first sentence.

Business case

— justification for an investment or project. Structure: context → problem/opportunity → proposed solution → financial analysis (NPV, IRR, payback period) → risks → recommendation.

The manager of a large company receives on average 120 business emails per day. Most of them are poorly written: unclear thesis, unnecessary introductory words, passive voice, lack of a specific request. A well-written letter is a competitive advantage.

Business correspondence is not literature. The criteria: clarity (the reader understands the first time), conciseness (no longer than necessary), effectiveness (it is clear what needs to be done). Elegance of style is a pleasant bonus, but not the goal.

Most people write in chronological or associative order: first context, then the main idea. The reader of a business text is busy and impatient. He wants to know first: what is being asked of him, and then — why.

The technique of the "inverted pyramid" (from journalism): the main information — the first paragraph; details and context — after. If the reader stops after the first paragraph — he knows the main thing.

A common misconception: "Data speak for themselves. We'll just show the numbers, and everything will become clear." Data do not speak — data are silent. It is the interpretation of data that speaks. And it is precisely in interpretation that the analyst creates or loses value.

Analytical writing is the transformation of raw data into an insight that demands action. Insight is not "sales grew by 12%." Insight is "sales grew by 12%, but margin fell by 8%, because growth was stimulated by discounts — this is not sustainable growth, and if we continue this policy, we will ...

SCR (Situation — Complication — Resolution): a method developed at McKinsey. Situation — context shared by the audience (facts that both sides acknowledge). Complication — what has changed or presents a problem (tension). Resolution — recommended actions.

Example: "Our market has grown by an average of 8% per year over the past five years (Situation). However, in the last quarter, three key competitors entered with products priced 25% lower, which has already led to our share dropping from 34% to 29% (Complication). To protect our position, we nee...

A cold email is a message sent to a person who does not know you and was not expecting a message from you. Most cold emails go unread. They are destroyed by three mistakes: irrelevance (no relation to the recipient), unclear value (unclear why to read), weak call to action.

Formula for a good cold email: (1) Personalized opening, showing that you know the recipient: “I read your interview in Forbes about UAE strategy…”. (2) Concrete value for the recipient: not “I want to connect,” but “I have data on X which, judging by your project Y, may be useful to you.” (3) Mi...

A manifesto is a document that formulates values, beliefs, and mission. The difference from a mission: a manifesto is written with a voice and conviction—it sounds like a person, not like a legal document.

The Cluetrain Manifesto (1999) began: “Markets are conversations.” The Agile Manifesto (2001): “Individuals and interactions over processes and tools.” Amazon “Working Backwards”: from press release to product, not the other way around. These are documents that set the cultural code.

Definitions

Anchor

— the first number named disproportionately influences the outcome. Whoever names the price first sets the anchor. Strategy: if you are the stronger side — speak first. If weaker and you don’t know the market — provoke the opponent to speak first.

Loss framing

— “You will save 200,000” vs “You will lose 200,000 if you don’t accept this offer” — the second frame is more convincing, since losses psychologically weigh heavier than gains.

Fisher, Ury, and Patton’s "Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In" (1981) — possibly the most influential book on negotiations. Its central idea: positional bargaining (I want X, you want Y, we settle at X+Y/2) is a suboptimal strategy. The best — “principled negotiation”.

Four principles: (1) Separate the people from the problem: negotiate with the problem, not with the person. Set aside emotions and relationships; put facts and interests at the center. (2) Focus on interests, not positions: position — “I want 60,000”. Interest — “I need to provide for my family, ...

(3) Create options before deciding: brainstorming before and during negotiations — the more options considered, the better the final decision. (4) Use objective criteria: not “because I want it”, but “the market price of a similar asset is...”, “industry standard...”, “independent appraisal...”.

Your BATNA (Best Alternative To Negotiated Agreement) is what you will do if negotiations fail. It is the source of your strength: the better your BATNA, the stronger your position. Before any negotiation: determine your BATNA and try to learn the BATNA of your opponent.

Definitions

1. Reciprocity

— we feel obliged to give back what was given to us. A free sample, a small gift, or taking the first step — all create a sense of obligation. Application: give first and freely. Limitation: if the gift is perceived as manipulation — the effect is t...

2. Commitment & Consistency

— having made a commitment — big or small — we are inclined to stick to it (so as to appear consistent). Foot-in-the-door: start with a small request, then ask for a bigger one. Application: ask for small agreement first (“Do you agree that employee...

3. Social Proof

— in uncertainty, we do what others are doing. Reviews, ratings, “99% of customers are satisfied”, a crowd at a restaurant. Most powerful under conditions of uncertainty and when “others” seem similar to us.

4. Authority

— we follow authorities — experts, people in uniform, with certificates. A doctor in a lab coat persuades differently than a doctor in a suit. Application: demonstrate competence; allow third parties to speak about your authority.

5. Liking

— we agree more readily with those we like. Three sources of liking: physical attractiveness, similarity (“Are you also from St. Petersburg?”), familiarity (mere exposure increases liking). Application: seek genuine similarity; offer sincere praise.

6. Scarcity

— what is rare is more valuable. “Only three spots left”, “only until Friday.” Application: if the scarcity is real — mention it. Artificial scarcity is effective short-term but destructive long-term.

7. Unity

— added in 2016: we respond more strongly to those whom we consider “our own” (family, tribe, identity). “Us versus them.” Application: create a sense of belonging to a shared group.

Robert Cialdini ("Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion", 1984; "Pre-Suasion", 2016) is a social psychologist who systematized the mechanisms of persuasion. His research: he worked undercover in organizations that use persuasion (sales, advertising, recruitment) and analyzed what actually works...

1. Reciprocity: we feel obliged to give back what was given to us. A free sample, a small gift, or taking the first step — all create a sense of obligation. Application: give first and freely. Limitation: if the gift is perceived as manipulation — the effect is the opposite.

2. Commitment & Consistency: having made a commitment — big or small — we are inclined to stick to it (so as to appear consistent). Foot-in-the-door: start with a small request, then ask for a bigger one. Application: ask for small agreement first (“Do you agree that employee safety is important?”).

3. Social Proof: in uncertainty, we do what others are doing. Reviews, ratings, “99% of customers are satisfied”, a crowd at a restaurant. Most powerful under conditions of uncertainty and when “others” seem similar to us.

Definitions

Pause

— “I need a minute to think.” A pause lowers cortisol levels and allows you to return to System 2.

Naming the emotion

— “I notice that I am starting to get angry—and I want to make sure it doesn’t interfere with the conversation.” Naming the emotion reduces its intensity (neurobiologically: activates the prefrontal cortex, decreases amygdala activity).

Return to the topic

— “It’s important to both of us to resolve this. May I suggest...”

A difficult conversation is a conversation about something important, where the parties have different points of view and where there is risk: for relationships, for self-esteem, for position. Most people avoid such conversations—or conduct them poorly, exacerbating the situation.

Douglas Stone, Bruce Patton, and Sheila Heen (“Difficult Conversations”, 1999, from the Harvard Negotiation Project): every difficult conversation contains three hidden “sub-conversations”: the conversation about what happened (different facts, different interpretations); the conversation about f...

The first trap: we are convinced that we are right. In most difficult conversations, both sides have part of the truth. Your version of events is one interpretation of real facts. Their version is another interpretation of the same or different facts.

Transition: instead of “You did not fulfill the obligation” (judgment) → “I expected the result to be ready on Friday, and it wasn’t. Help me understand what happened.” This opens up space for their interpretation—which, perhaps, will be new to you.

Aristotle distinguished three rhetorical contexts: judicial (the past — what happened), deliberative (the future — what to do), and epideictic (the present — whom to praise or blame). Social media have created a new, hybrid situation: everyone can be a speaker; the audience is infinitely fragment...

Classical rhetorical principles remain valid—but require adaptation. Ethos on Twitter/X is built differently than in court. Pathos on Instagram operates through visuals rather than words. Logos on LinkedIn is limited to 3,000 characters.

In traditional rhetoric, persuasion is the goal. In digital rhetoric, it is dissemination. Viral content is not necessarily persuasive, but it must be spread.

What makes content viral? The study by Jonah Berger (“Contagious”, 2013): STEPPS — Social Currency (social currency—content shared because it makes us look smart/cool), Triggers (triggers—associated with frequent events), Emotion (emotion—especially high-arousal: awe, anger, anxiety), Public (pub...

Definitions

Identity

— who are you professionally? What is your specialization? What is the viewpoint that distinguishes you from others in your field? Without answers to these questions, a brand is impossible, because there is no substance.

Visibility

— do people know about you? Your content, presentations, publications, participation in professional communities. A good professional whom no one knows is a losing strategy in a world where decisions are made based on reputation.

Consistency

— does your online image match your offline persona? Does your LinkedIn profile correspond to what your colleagues say about you? Coherence is the basis of trust.

"Personal brand" sounds like narcissism. In reality, it's the management of how you are perceived professionally. Everyone has a reputation — the question is whether it is intentionally created or develops spontaneously.

Tom Peters introduced this term in 1997 in the article "The Brand Called You" (Fast Company): "Regardless of age, regardless of position, regardless of the business we are in, we all must understand the importance of branding ourselves."

Identity: who are you professionally? What is your specialization? What is the viewpoint that distinguishes you from others in your field? Without answers to these questions, a brand is impossible, because there is no substance.

Visibility: do people know about you? Your content, presentations, publications, participation in professional communities. A good professional whom no one knows is a losing strategy in a world where decisions are made based on reputation.

Geert Hofstede called culture “the collective programming of the mind” — a set of values, norms, and practices shared by a group. In international business, ignoring this programming is a recipe for failure.

Richard Lewis (“When Cultures Collide”, 1996) classified cultures into three types: linear-active (Germany, Scandinavia, USA): planning, punctuality, direct communication, facts and figures, separation of work and personal life. Reactive (Japan, China, Finland): listen more than speak, avoid dire...

The most critical cultural difference for the professional: direct vs indirect style. In Germany, “no” means no. In Japan, a direct refusal is loss of face. “Perhaps this will be difficult” means no.

Richard Lewis describes the “Finnish sauna effect”: a Finn is silent with you — this is comfort and respect. For an American, silence is anxiety and awkwardness. The same nonverbal signal — polar opposite meanings.

The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries created a new form of rhetoric — public rhetoric. Whereas classical rhetoric was speech delivered before an assembled audience (court, popular assembly), the new rhetoric addressed the “public” — abstract, dispersed, reading. Newspapers, pamphlets, parliame...

Jürgen Habermas (“The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere,” 1962) described this process: the emergence of the “bourgeois public sphere”— a space of rational discussion among private individuals, discussing matters of common interest. Coffee houses, literary salons, parliament — these ...

The ideal of public rhetoric according to Habermas: persuasion through argument, not through status or money. “The better argument should win”— a normative standard. Rhetoric in this model is an instrument of rational persuasion, not manipulation.

Habermas also described the “degradation” of the public sphere: commercialization of the press, PR and propaganda, mass television have transformed the “public” from participants in discussion into an audience of spectacle.

Abraham Lincoln is the greatest orator in American history. His rhetoric is unique: biblical imagery, conciseness, moral directness. The "Gettysburg Address" (1863) — 272 words, 2 minutes — redefined the meaning of the Civil War.

Lincoln reformulated the war: not "the Union against secession," but "a test, whether a nation, founded on the principle of equality, can survive." This rhetorical redefinition became a political act: he invested new meaning in American identity.

Second Inaugural Address (1865): "With malice toward none, with charity for all" — rhetoric of reconciliation, not victory. This is striking for a leader at the end of a destructive war: a rejection of triumphalism, a call to heal wounds. Many historians consider this speech "the best example of ...

Winston Churchill consciously used rhetoric as a military instrument. "Their Finest Hour," "I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat," "We shall fight on the beaches" (1940) — speeches that created a shared narrative of survival for the British Empire in the face of Nazism.

Joseph Goebbels — Minister of Propaganda of the Third Reich — created a system of total communicative manipulation, utilizing all available media: newspapers, radio, cinema, posters, mass events.

The principles of Nazi propaganda (systematized later): simplicity (one enemy, one slogan), repetition, emotional influence instead of arguments, appeal to fear and hatred, creation of “us” versus “them,” monopoly on information, presentation of propaganda as “truth” versus the “lies” of the enemy.

Radio — the main instrument. Goebbels created the “people’s radio receiver” (Volksempfänger) — cheap, widely accessible. By 1939, Germany had the largest radio coverage in the world. Hitler’s voice entered every home.

Soviet propaganda used other tools: the language of class struggle, scientism (Marxism as a “scientific” worldview), utopian images of the future, and the heroic narrative of the revolution.

Edward Bernays (1891–1995) — the nephew of Sigmund Freud — created modern public relations as a profession and as a science. His book "Propaganda" (1928) opens provocatively: "The conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organized habits and opinions of the masses is an important element in ...

Bernays applied Freudian analysis to mass communication: people make decisions based on emotions and subconscious desires, not rational calculation. Effective communication appeals to these subconscious forces, not to reason.

Bernays's key principle: "appeal to opinion leaders." To change the views of the masses, you do not need to persuade everyone — you need to persuade the "authorities" they trust. This is the "two-step flow" of communication (Lazarsfeld).

"Torches of Freedom" (1929): The American Tobacco Company wanted to open up the market of women smokers (which was considered indecent). Bernays organized a "protest" of suffragists smoking at the Easter Parade in New York — "torches of freedom." The media covered it as a feminist gesture. Sales ...

Advertising is one of the largest rhetorical systems of the contemporary world. Each day, a person encounters 4,000–10,000 advertising messages. These are not just commercial offers — they are rhetorical acts, constructing desires, identities, and norms.

Roland Barthes (“Rhetoric of the Image”, 1964) — one of the first semiotic analyses of advertising. Analysis of Panzani advertising (pasta): three messages — linguistic (words), coded iconic (symbols: Italian flag, freshness), non-coded iconic (literal image). Advertising operates on several leve...

“Denotation and connotation”: denotation — literal meaning (photograph of a woman). Connotation — cultural meaning (youth, beauty, success). Advertising is a machine for producing connotations.

Modern advertising does not sell products — it sells identities. “Buy this — and you’ll become like that” — the implicit promise of most advertising narratives. Nike sells athletic identity. Apple — creative. Louis Vuitton — status.

George Lakoff ("Don't Think of an Elephant", 2004): political disputes are disputes over frames—mental structures through which we perceive reality. "Tax relief": the word "relief" implies that taxes are a burden from which one should be relieved. This is a conservative frame. "Tax investment" is...

When progressives accept a conservative frame ("we also want relief, but..."), they lose. "Don't think of an elephant"—it is impossible not to think of it. Any mention of a frame activates it.

Framing of specific political disputes: "illegal immigrants" vs. "undocumented workers". "Abortion" vs. "reproductive choice" vs. "child murder". "Climate change" vs. "climate crisis" vs. "climate emergency". Each frame creates different implications and mobilizes different allies.

Nations are "imagined communities" (Benedict Anderson): they exist through shared narratives. "The American dream", "French republican tradition", "Russian spiritual path"—these are narratives constructing political identity.

Digital social networks have created radically new rhetorical conditions. The audience is not gathered before an orator, but dispersed, global, heterogeneous. Speed is not measured in days until a newspaper is released, but in seconds until the content spreads. Interactivity means the audience re...

"Virality" is the main goal in the rhetoric of social networks. What makes content viral? Jonah Berger's research ("Contagious", 2013): six principles of virality—social currency (make me interesting), triggers (remind me of something relevant), emotions (high arousal: anger, awe, anxiety—not sad...

Platform algorithms optimize "engagement"—which correlates with emotional arousal. This creates a systematic advantage for content that is conflictual, simplified, and emotionally charged.

Twitter/X (280 characters) created rhetoric of radical brevity. This is a rhetoric of slogans, not arguments. "A slogan beats a paragraph" in this environment. This is not neutral: complex positions cannot be expressed in 280 characters without simplification.

"Fake news" is not simply "falsehood." It is a rhetorical system that uses the form of news (authority, objectivity) to disseminate false or distorted content. This system is especially effective because the audience applies trust in "news" to content that does not deserve it.

Anatomy of Disinformation (Wardle, Derakhshan, "Information Disorder Ecology"): disinformation (disinformation — intentional falsehood), malinformation (malinformation — truth used to cause harm), misinformation (misinformation — unintentional inaccuracy). Different types require different respon...

"Fake News Playbook" (typical techniques): headline does not correspond to the text; photo without context; quotation taken out of context; "anonymous source"; imaginary sources; real story attributed to another context ("repackaging").

MIT Research (2018, Vosoughi, Roy, Aral): false news spreads 6 times faster than truthful ones. Why? Lies are more "novel" — truth is usually more boring. Lies more often evoke high arousal (fear, outrage, astonishment).

"A picture is worth a thousand words"—but in a rhetorical sense this is not a compliment, but a danger. The image persuades differently than a verbal argument: instantly, emotionally, without logical structure. This makes visual rhetoric especially powerful—and especially manipulative.

Susan Sontag ("On Photography," 1977; "Regarding the Pain of Others," 2003): photography creates the illusion of objectivity ("the camera does not lie"), but in reality every shot is the result of choices: angle, framing, light, moment. This "realism" is a rhetorical effect.

"Iconic photographs" are images that have become part of collective memory: "Napalm Girl" (Vietnam War), "The Falling Man" (9/11), "Alan Kurdi" (Syrian refugee child on the shore). These images changed public opinion—they made abstract tragedies concrete and emotionally present.

Edward Tufte ("The Visual Display of Quantitative Information"): good infographics "let the data speak." Bad infographics manipulate: truncated axes (growth appears greater), incomparable units, hidden variables.

Classical rhetoric addressed the audience as a homogeneous group. Modern digital marketing and political targeting use data to create personalized messages—different people are shown different versions of the “speech”.

Cambridge Analytica (2018) — a scandal which revealed the possibilities of psychographic microtargeting. The company used data from Facebook to create psychological profiles of voters and showed each type personalized ads for Trump. “Personalized propaganda” is persuasion perfectly tailored to th...

This is rhetoric of a fundamentally different type: not “how to address everyone,” but “what to say to this particular person.” This maximizes persuasiveness—and maximizes the risk of manipulation.

“Dark patterns” in UX: interface solutions that manipulate behavior without explicit persuasion. “Subscribe” — a bright button, “Unsubscribe” — small gray text. Automatic subscription renewal with a difficult opt-out process. This is “choice architecture” (Thaler, Sunstein), used for manipulative...

"Seeing is believing"—a Western epistemological presumption. Video evidence is the most convincing. Deepfakes attack this presumption: it is now possible to create a convincing video in which a real person says something they never actually said.

Deepfake technologies (GAN — Generative Adversarial Networks) allow faces to be superimposed onto other bodies, voices to be synthesized, and fully generative "videos" to be created. The quality is growing exponentially: deepfakes from 2024 are indistinguishable from real videos without special a...

Rhetorical consequences: "reduction of plausible denial"—now any real video of compromising behavior can be declared a deepfake. This is the "paradox of evidence": the technology simultaneously allows the creation of fakes and makes trust in the genuine impossible.

Renée DiResta introduced the term "infocalypse": a media environment so saturated with narratives and counter-narratives that achieving consensus about basic reality becomes impossible. This is not "the end of truth"—it is "the end of shared truth".

GPT-4 writes persuasive essays, speeches, and marketing texts. It adapts style to the audience, uses rhetorical figures, constructs arguments. This raises questions about the nature of rhetoric: if a machine can persuade—what is unique in human persuasion?

“Synthetic rhetoric”: AI systems create personalized persuasive content at scale. One operator + GPT = thousands of personalized persuasive messages per hour. This changes the “market of persuasion”: before, large-scale persuasion required media, money, organization. Now—API and a laptop.

Rhetoric of “AI explainability”: AI developers and regulators need rhetoric capable of explaining complex technical concepts to a broad audience. “Explainability” is not only a technical, but also a rhetorical task.

Classical rhetoric was taught in schools from antiquity until the 19th century. Then it was displaced by “literary” education. Today—a renaissance: “critical thinking”, “communication skills”, “media literacy” are rhetoric under other names.